About Revenge Essay Essay

If there is one thing that has been prevalent since human interaction began, it is the concept of revenge. Everyone has a moment in their life where someone does them wrong, and they want nothing more than to get back at the person who is responsible. While this reaction is completely normal, the results of actually acting on these feelings usually end badly for everyone involved. One of the main reasons that revenge does not typically end well is because once all is said and done, the past can not be changed. â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado†, like many other stories, is focused on the theme of revenge, which is a feeling everyone is familiar with and is something that almost always ends badly. One of the more prominent stories about revenge comes from Edgar Allan Poe, a very well known author recognized mainly for his dark story writing. His story, â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado†, is an interesting tale about a man who feels insulted and seeks revenge. Essentially, the ma in character, Montressor, feels that he has been insulted by his apparent hated enemy, Fortunato, and as a result he leaves Fortunato tied up in the Montressor family’s catacombs to die. In this story, many things are left unclear. For one thing, it is never told what exactly Fortunato did to exact this revenge. This means that his â€Å"insult† could be anything, and the punishment for his ‘crime’ in this story goes to show the length that people are willing to go to get revenge on someone who has wronged them. One thing to note in this story is that the narrator is never caught for his crime. Although â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† is a good story about revenge, it is not Edgar Allan Poe’s only story that relates to the subject. Another one of his stories that focuses on revenge is â€Å"Hop-Frog.† â€Å"Hop-Frog† tells the tale of a dwarf and his female companion, Trippetta, who are taken as prisoners from their homes and brought to be entertainment for a king that is very appreciative of humor. The story ends with Hop-Frog and his companion getting revenge upon the king for striking Trippetta and  his mindless council by burning them alive in front of a crowd of people at a masquerade party. The main difference between this story and â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† is that there is a lot more information to go off of. For one thing, it is made very clear why Hop-Frog wants to get revenge upon the king. One similarity between â€Å"Hop-Frog† and â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† is that in neither story do the people achieving revenge have anything bad happen to them as a result. In both stories, it is apparent that the characters get away with their deeds. â€Å"Hop-Frog† brings a sense of joy in that Hop-Frog and Trippetta get away, but it leaves the viewer wondering if what they did was right. Even so, wanting revenge is a natural feeling after being wronged, and there are deeper, psychological effects revolving around these feelings as well. An article by Stillwell, Baumeister, and Del Priore says that, â€Å"The discrepancies between how different people see the same event may contribute to such seemingly inequitable outcomes.† (253). What this means is that many times, people see different things when looking at the same situation, and as a result, one person can be left less satisfied with the results than the other person. For example, one person may view a prank as a minor thing and laugh it off, while the person who was pranked may view it as something that really rubbed them the wrong way and is something that they want to get back at the other person for. â€Å"When people are hurt or angered by another person they may try to restore equity to the relationship.† (Stillwell, Baumeister, and Del Priore 253). This means that when someone feels wronged, they feel like they have to make the relationship even again. Needless to say, some people will act on their feelings, and naturally some cases of revenge can go wrong. There are a bunch of cases in the news about how someone tries to take revenge upon someone else. For the most part they end badly, which would make sense considering they ended up in the news. One case of revenge gone wrong occurred in New Port Richey, Florida when a seventeen year old turned a corner too fast and crashed into a few parked cars and a house in what was meant to be a simple attempt to throw eggs at her ex-boyfriend’s car. The end result was thousands of dollars worth of property damage and a citation for careless driving (Tampabay.com). As with this story and many others, revenge likely occurred because of a bad relationship break up. There are countless cases where someone seeks revenge on an ex-partner and ends up  doing something fundamentally worse than the actual breakup. In a similar case, I interviewed a friend of mine who wishes to remain anonymous about a time that he seeked revenge. As with many cases of revenge, his was the result of a relationship gone bad. It was directed towards an ex-girlfriend who had recently began dating one of his close friends. After the break up, he was crushed. He took it very personally when his ex-girlfriend began dating one of his close friends. As a result, he ended up making threats against the new boyfriend and harassing his ex-girlfriend by hacking all of her social media accounts and deleting them. The end result of his actions lead to a sit down between the group, which resulted with the possibility of harassment charges. In his case, he got lucky, but it could have ended much worse had they chosen to press charges. Since then he has made the decision that it would be best for him and for them if he just cut them out of his life for the time being, so that is what he is doing. Relationship break ups are rarely mutual, and if they are it usually does not stay that way for long, with one person ending up regretting the decision more than they thought they would. This case goes to show that acting on feelings of revenge is not good for anyone. Of course having a successful act of revenge towards someone may feel very satisfying at first, but in the long run people tend to reminisce about the initial event and it leaves them feeling just as bad as they did when it happened. Something that many people should learn is that there is no way to change the past. There will always be a v oid in the mind when thinking about what happened. â€Å"Revenge is a doomed attempt to eliminate shame and increase stature by asserting dominance.† (EmotionalCompetency.com). This means that when we feel like taking revenge, it is just a hole we are trying to fill with confidence to make ourselves feel better. As humans, we do not want to lose face with the people we know, so we feel obliged to take action against the wrongdoer to balance the scale. Conversely, while many people would jump on the opportunity to get back at someone, some people are strong enough to not act on the urges of revenge. It takes a strong person to let something go, and it takes an even stronger person to completely forgive. â€Å"Forgiveness is the cancellation of deserved hostility and the substitution of friendlier attitudes.† (Hughes 113). To forgive someone should be viewed as a type of release. When a person forgives another, they are releasing all of their anger and hostility and opening the door to a renewed friendship, or at least an agreement to not interact again. Of course, forgiving someone will not always stop them from doing something else in the future, but it is still a good method to practice for yourself. â€Å"Forgiveness has a discretionary nature, and the discretion belongs to the injured.† (Hughes 113). Many times, the best way to get back at someone is to show them that they did not have as massive an effect over you as they were hoping. While forgiving someone will not give immediate satisfaction, it is usually better for a person to let something go than to dwell on it for a long period of time. In contrast, it may be wondered whether or not retribution is always such a bad thing in certain cases. In the case of ‘Vicky’, it seems like retribution may be something that she deserves. Ten years ago, ‘Vicky’, who was ten years old at the time, fell victim to her father, who recorded many videos of her performing sex acts with him and even made her act out scripts. Her real name as well as her father’s name was redacted from the court documents, however the case ended with her father being sentenced to fifty years in prison. Prosecutors from ‘Vicky’s’ case have said that â€Å"While she continues to try to live a normal life, ‘Vicky’ carries emotional burdens which continually get in her way.† (OpposingViewpoints.com). Needless to say, this case is an extreme one, which begs the question as to whether or not retribution is something that Vicky is right in seeking. It would seem outlandish for anyone to blame her for making the people who download the videos of her pay for her therapy. In this case, it may be best to let the victim act out what they feel, because very few people can truly understand what it is that ‘Vicky’ has been through and continues to go through everyday. Not surprisingly, the entertainment industry has quite an interest in the topic of revenge. Some of the most popular shows that air on television relate to the theme of revenge in one way or another. In ‘Breaking Bad’, there are episodes toward the end where one character wants revenge very badly on another character, and it ends up putting him in a monumentally worse position than he was at before. There are countless other shows with similar themes. Many popular movies do this as well. The film series ‘Kill Bill’ by Quentin Tarantino pretty much revolves around that subject entirely. It can be wondered what it is that makes movies and television shows about revenge so popular with people, and the most likely answer lies in our society as a whole. A thirst  for vengeance is a feeling everyone is familiar with and it is satisfying for us to watch others achieve it. Overall, revenge is a very common theme throughout the world we live in. It is something that is unlikely to change because it is just how we are wired. As humans, we can not help but get feelings of anger and retribution when we are wronged, but it should at least be known that most of the time, the actual act will only make a person feel worse than they did before in the long run. Society as a whole should be more accepting of the method of forgiveness as opposed to revenge as this is the only way to truly move on. â€Å"In taking revenge, a man is but even with his enemy; but in passing it over, he is superior.† (Sir Francis Bacon. EmotionalCompetency.com) Work Cited: Poe, Edgar A. â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† (1846) Web 03 Dec. 2013. This is one of Edgar Allan Poe’s Classic tales about revenge. I used this story as a starting off point for the theme of my essay, which revolves around revenge. This information is in my first body paragraph which dissects the story. Poe, Edgar A. â€Å"Hop-Frog† (1850). Web 05 Dec. 2013 http://www.eapoe.org/works/tales/hopfrgb.htm. This is another Edgar Allan Poe story which also focuses on revenge. I used this story to show that in many stories revenge is a very common theme. This information is in my second body paragraph which dissects the story. Stillwell, Arlene. Baumeister Roy, and Del Priore, Regan. â€Å"Basic and Applied Social Psychology† We’re all Victims Here: Toward a Psychology of Revenge. (2008) 253-263. Web 06 Dec. 2013. Academic Library- Psychology and Behavioral Sciences. This article explains the psychology revolving around revenge and does studies involving the subject. I used this article to help explain the psychology behind feelings of revenge. This information is in my third body paragraph. Hughes, Martin. â€Å"Analysis† Forgiveness. (1975) 113-117 Web 06 Dec. 2013. Academic Library- JSTOR. In this entry, Hughes explains the concept of forgiveness and what it truly means. This information is used in the part of my essay that explains forgiveness. Chavez, Adriana M. â€Å"Online Child Pornography Can Harm Victims for Life.† (2013) Web 06 Dec. 2013. Academic Library- Opposing Viewpoints. This article goes over the case of a girl who was sexually abused as a child and explains what she has gone through since the incident. This information is used in the paragraph that wonders if revenge is always such a bad thing in certain situations. Sanders, Katie. â€Å"Revenge gone wrong: Teen driver crashes into New Port Richey home.† Tampa Bay Times. 05 Mar. 2010. Web 06 Dec. 2013. This article reports a case of revenge gone wrong in the form of a girl attempting to throw eggs at an ex-boyfriend’s car and causing a lot of property damage in the process. This information is used in the essay’s paragraph that explains how revenge can go wrong. â€Å"Revenge – Getting Even† – No author listed. EmotionalCompetency.com – ND. Web 06 Dec. 2013. This web page helps further explain some of the concepts of revenge and forgiveness. This information is used in my essay’s paragraphs involving forgiveness. I also use a quote about revenge from this page. Anonymous. Personal Interview. 05 Dec. 2013. This is an interview i did of a friend who wanted to remain anonymous about a time he seeked revenge against an ex-girlfriend. I use this information in the area that involves revenge going wrong.

A Critical Analysis of Sir Patrick Spens, The Ballad Essay

‘Sir Patrick Spens’ is, for the most part, an archetypal early ballad being composed in quatrains, with the typical alternating four-stress and three-stress lines and the second and fourth line of each stanza rhyming. The poem is set in medias res, telling certainly of a tragedy, possibly based on two voyages in the thirteenth-century on which Scottish noblemen transported princesses to royal marriages, with many members of Alexander III’s daughter Margaret’s escort drowning on the journey home. The theme of tragedy and having a plot based on local history are both elements often seen in the ballad form. However, the poem does also defy characteristics of the traditional ballad; it includes a third person narrative voice that is not necessarily impartial, which contradicts the typically impersonal, distanced narration commonly found in this genre of poetry. There is an example of a satirical view of the higher classes, mocking the king’s decision to not withhold the voyage and also mocking the fact that the nobles boarded the ship, for if they had not, then the tragedy would have been avoided. The dark humour found in the personification of their hats that ‘swam aboon’(line 32) exemplifies a view not particularly sympathetic with the drowning victims, which coupled with the idea that ‘the play were played’(line 31) suggests the inevitability that this would be the situation, clearly signifying a mockery of the decisions made by the higher classes. Early ballads often contain strong regional dialect as they were originally orally transmitted. This particular dialect gives the reader a strong idea of the origins of the ballad and lends a sense of authenticity to the text, reaffirming the typicality of this particular ballad, being a further reference to it’s foundations in local history. The dialect can also be used as a tool to highlight sections of the ballad, for example, when it is used to describe the King drinking blood-red wine or ‘blude-reid wine’ (line 2). This strong image is prefigurative of the tragic ending of the poem and echoes the previously displayed idea that the narrator feels the king is responsible for this misfortune. The narrator’s view reflects the idea of ‘power without responsibility’ which makes this ballad somewhat  ahead of its time. It was rare that royalty were questioned when the ballad form flourished in Scotland from the fifteenth century onward. This notion that the poem is quite a ahead of it’s time implies that at least this ballad negates the view of Ben Johnson’s dictum ‘a poet should detest a ballad maker’[1] as clearly here the early ballad demonstrates a brilliant use in it’s ability to convey a person’s personal political view in a rather active way, passing on their message by word of mouth and challenging the accepted.

Microsoft’s Diversification Strategy Essay

1. Why did Microsoft, the most successful computer software company, choose to remedy its strategic disarray? Microsoft is a multinational computer technology corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services related to computing. The company was founded by Bill Gates and Paul Allen on April 4, 1975. Microsoft is the world’s largest software maker measured by revenues. It is also one of the world’s most valuable companies. However, after a string of bad news seriously undermined the future growth of Microsoft, the bad impression was arisen. Microsoft tried to remedy its strategic disarray, because in the high-technology industry, standstill is equal to commit suicide. IT industry is really a highly competitive industry. Microsoft must to solve their problems as soon as possible. Microsoft was the most successful computer software company. However, if they ignore its strategic disarray, they may be defeated. I would like to use SWOT analysis to illustrate my views why Microsoft chose to remedy its strategic disarray. Strengths: Microsoft is the world’s largest software company with global name recognition and strong reputation for innovative products. Microsoft’s Software products have high name recognition, broad-based corporate and consumer acceptance (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access), and numerous powerful features that are in use worldwide, thereby promoting standardization and competitive advantage through their ease of integration and cost-effectiveness. Windows 95, 98, 2000 series are globally known as the PC desktop operating system with a market share of about 88%. What’s more, Microsoft has relatively rapid product development processes that allow for timely updating and release of new products. Weaknesses: Between1990-1995, Microsoft leadership failed to correctly anticipate the growth or popularity of the Internet. In addition, it perceived by many as a cut-throat competitor that uses its dominant market position to marginalize competition by stealing/destroying the competition’s products, stifling product innovation, and decreasing the availability of competitor products. Furthermore, Microsoft had its strategic disarray in the early 2000s. Opportunities: In the early 2000s, the demand for personal computers in American and global markets remains strong despite the growth and increasing popularity of personal handheld devices. Moreover, cheaper global telecommunication costs open new markets as people connect to the Internet. Threats: From the case study, basic office software had been challenged by a string of start-ups. Between 1993-1995, Sun Microsystems, Netscape, Oracle, IBM, AOL, and other companies moved into the Internet space and defined it while Microsoft failed to anticipate its growth or popularity. These new competitors were able to churn out popular programs such as e-mail, desktop search engines, and instant messaging over the Internet much faster than Microsoft. So Microsoft need reinvent itself. For instance, Red Hat, the one of key competitors of Microsoft, dominated the market for Linux, went public in 2000. Red Hat became famous. What’s more, in 2001, Red Hat expanded its software products and included database applications and an e-commerce software suite designed for average-sized businesses. Nevertheless, a string of bad news undermined the future growth of Microsoft since the early 2000s. If Microsoft didn’t remedy its strategic disarray, Red Hat or other competitors may surpass Microsoft in the future. Furthermore, from the case study, according to a study conducted by McKinseyï ¼â€ Co. in 2004 on IT spending trends, although IT spending had increased since 2003 after three years of decline. 2001 is the first annual decline since 1958. Customers would expect to get more out of their technology investments. Companies had been more concerned about the value of IT and enforced stringent rules and guidelines for IT spending. Therefore, Microsoft would have less opportunity to develop in the U.S. Moreover, Apple and Linux threaten Microsoft’s 88% market share of the desktop operating market. Linux influence growing from 7% in 1998 to 17% in 1999. In addition, Personal computers, mobile-phones, personal digit assistants, entertainment-oriented hand-held computers, and similar wireless products for Internet access do not require Window operating system products. And Software piracy of commercial and consumer applications software on a global scale threatens revenue streams. In general, the weaknesses and threats outweigh the strengths and opportunities in the early 2000s. At that time, Microsoft was threatened by a series of challenges, both external and internal. That why Microsoft choose to remedy its strategic disarray at that time. 2. How did Microsoft grasp market chances to diversify its operation beyond its comfort zone, fighting all the way with its major competitors? Microsoft chose to diversify its operation beyond its comfort zone since early 2000s. Diversification marketing strategy is a corporate strategy to increase sales volume from new products and new markets. Diversification can be expanding into a new segment of an industry that the business is already in, or investing in a promising business outside of the scope of the existing business. As what we have learned in the textbook, diversification strategy has many advantages. Diversification strategy can help Microsoft to limit risk. This is because a diversified portfolio is not overexposed to a single industry and therefore is somewhat insulated from downturns and volatility — or market fluctuations — in that industry. In addition, diversification limits an investor’s risk extending from an individual company or type of investments. In addition to limiting downside risk, diversification strategies also have the effect of maximizing portfolio returns. This is in part because risk is limited — by avoiding exposure to major losses, the portfolio can be more likely to make money. Microsoft was moving beyond the personal computer (PC) software business and expanded its product lines into enterprise software, consumer products, and services markets. It got into other devices such as mobile phones, television setup boxes, and game consoles. Microsoft had ventured into the services market through MSN in order to generate new revenue. MSN is a collection of Internet sites and services provided by Microsoft. It was a Web portal that offered a wide range of online services including: news, information search, e-mail, instant messaging, online shopping and games, chat rooms, and message boards. Based on its success in MSN, Microsoft had hoped to leverage its experience to transform its Windows-based services for consumers and enterprises. Moreover, Microsoft also leveraged MSN to generate revenue through traditional advertising on its Web site, and also sold text-based advertisements to compete with Google’s AdWords and AdSense, and Yahoo! Search Marketing. In the enterprise software market, Microsoft deliberately chose not to compete with leading enterprise applications providers such as SAP and Oracle for large multinational companies. Instead, the software giant aggressively pursued opportunities with small and midsized enterprises. In 2001, Microsoft acquired Great Plains Software, a long-time partner and a specialist in accounting applications for small and midsized businesses. In 2002, Microsoft acquired Navision, a Denmark-based enterprise software maker. Therefore, Microsoft Business Solutions offered a wide range of software applications. This kind of strategy is really shrewd. If Microsoft competes with leading enterprise applications providers at beginning of the extending stage, it is impractical. Microsoft used acquisition method to enhance its strength in order to compete with leading companies in the future. Microsoft entered the video gaming business in 2001 compete with Sony. After the first launch of the video game console, Xbox, Microsoft is in the distant second place behind Sony’s Playstation 2. Microsoft tried to challenge Sony’s dominant position. First, the software giant’s Xbox 360 was launched several months ahead of its rivals’ products: Sony’s Playstation 3. Some believed that the success of Sony’s Playstation 2 had been partly due to its advantage in reaching the market earlier than its rival s. Hence, Microsoft copied this marketing trick by becoming the first game console in the new business cycle. It is called, dominating the market by striking first. We can learn from the Microsoft that capturing initiative is important in the business. Second, learning from the flop of the original Xbox in Japan, this time Microsoft worked closely with the producers of the Japanese games in the hope of neutralizing the traditional advantages of its two main rivals. I can learn from this case, we should learn from failure as Microsoft did. Avoiding backwards and developing merit. Third, Microsoft abandoned its previous approach of using off-the-shelf parts provided by Intel and Nvidia. Although efficient, that approach lacked the flexibility that Microsoft’s rivals enjoyed in reducing the consoles’ costs and increasing the profit margins during their lifetime. For example, Sony had gradually reduced the number of chips required by its Playstation 2 without sacrificing its performance. So Microsoft adopted a new design for Xbox 360, hoping to achieve a new degree of flexibility that could help integrate various components and profitability in the future. Microsoft also ventured into the mobile communications market. Microsoft went to the mobile operators because of the exclusion of the mobile handset manufacturers. At that time, many mobile operators, particularly in Europe, started to leverage original design manufacturers (ODM), mostly in Taiwan, to produce handsets that would bear their own brand names in order to create market differentiators. Meanwhile, Microsoft spotted this opportunity and persuaded the operators and handset manufacturers to develop phones based on its Windows Mobile operating system. In 2002, HTC launched the first Windows-based smart phone. HTC is a leading ODM in Taiwan. Other operators followed suit after that. In late 2005, Palm (Microsoft’s rival in handheld devices) decided to adopt the Windows Mobile software and replace is Palm OS with its Treo smart phone. This move further signaled Microsoft’s success in penetrating the mobile and handheld market segments. From this case, we can learn that the company should be sensitive to the business environment and grasp the chance in time. Microsoft spotted and grasped the opportunities to further establish itself in the industry. Microsoft had struggled for many years in the television market. At the beginning, many competitors were concerned that once Microsoft entered the market it would repeat its monopolistic practices of the PC business in the cable industry. In this situation, Microsoft had formed strategic partnerships, hoping to improve its position in the cable market. In this way, Microsoft established itself as a leading IPTV technology provider. Through this arrangement, a number of leading telecom operators adopted Microsoft’s software for their IPTV services. Hence, understanding how to cooperate with competitors is also important for doing business. In 2009, Microsoft created Bing as a search engine competed with Google. Microsoft grasped chances to be successful in the Chinese market to the best of its faculty. When entering the Chinese market, challenges remain for those looking to do business in the country. Intense competition, corruption, business etiquette and language are some of the barriers that can be faced. However, challenges are opportunities to some extent. Microsoft realized that when entering the Chinese market, the product may not sell like it does in the United States or Europe. In terms of Microsoft and China, the country has a strong censorship in place for its citizens, and Microsoft tried to come to an agreement to partner with a Chinese company to make the browser effective. Microsoft has signed a deal with Baidu, the biggest search engine in China, to provide English-language search results to improve its market share. In addition, Microsoft knew that Chinese government’s demands are significant. Microsoft Company censored the search results to relevant department to meet the Chinese government’s demands. The announcement of the deal is a boost to Microsoft, which has been struggling to boost the position of its Bing search engine against Google’s dominance in almost every country around the world. Sometimes, Bing trumps Google in touch-accessed services designed expressly to help iPhone and iPad die-hards have cooler experiences shopping and finding restaurants online. It will also be a boost for Baidu, which has ambitions internationally. In 2012, Microsoft launched panel computer, Surface. Ballmer redefined panel computer at Surface’s New Product Presentation in June, 2012. Surface is different from iPad. Surface is closer to the idea of ​​Bill Gates. This is a panel computer that can work in the company. This is in harmony with Bill Gates’ definition to the panel in the beginning. Apple thinks panel is a mobile terminal. Microsoft Surface is more inclined to think is personal computers. I can see this point at the choice of the operating system. Apple is using iOS system for iPad. On the contrary, Microsoft is using Win8 for Surface. Moreover, Surface’s design is directed against for the iPad’s weaknesses. Microsoft used differentiation strategy. iPad’s input system is inconvenient, but Surface has a detachable keyboard, which makes Surface use like a computer. Meanwhile, Surface’s design is directed against for iPad’s App Store. App Store’s application depth is not enough. Nevertheless, Surface Pro is using the X86’s Win8 operating system, it can use more compatible operating system. One of Microsoft’s largest competitors is Apple Corporation. At the first competition between Apple and Microsoft, the winner is Microsoft. Windows operating system has good compatibility. Different brands and types of the computers around the world are installed in the same system. Despite it has shortcomings, but it can not hide the plebification characteristics. In contrast, Apple is pursuit of perfection and strict exclusiveness. Only Apple can install Apple’s system, but also only be installed such systems. Although Apple produce a good product, but can not win the favor of consumers. What’s more, Microsoft faced the challenge actively. In 2011, Skype was purchased by Microsoft Corporation for over $8 billion, and now operates as a division of Microsoft. Skype is a proprietary Voice over IP service and software application. Skype has expanded into education, as numerous classrooms worldwide now use the service to video conference with instructors, other student, and even other institutions. This will allow Skype to have a leg up in the future, when they decide to push even further with their subscription plans. What’s more, with Microsoft’s efforts in 2010 like apps store, Bing search engine, Yahoo-deal for ad-sharing, Zune platf orm and Project Natal, will undoubtedly compete with Apple and others effectively. 3. What can you foresee or what suggestions can you think about its growth of new area in the future? As far as I’m concerned, the growth of Microsoft’s new products will increase smoothly. However, Microsoft will face some challenges. Xbox, Kinect and Xbox Live continue to emerge as a rich hub for games, sports, movies and TV shows that can be accessed via touch and voice controls. And these controls are being increasingly integrated into all manner of screens: HDTVs, smart phones and tablets. â€Å"Two years ago, very few services connected,† says Frank X. Shaw, Microsoft’s vice president for corporate communications. â€Å"Now if you have an Xbox, you can see Bing, access Sky Drive (cloud storage) and use your Windows Phone to have a better experience, because the services are shared.† They are all products of new area. Their marketing foreground will be rosy. In my opinion, in all new products, Microsoft should focus on Bing. The key competitors of Bing, Google and Yahoo!, had adopted the application-as-services model coupled with a new advertising-driven funding approach, which enabled them to develop open-source and free software products for the general public. In particular, in the case, Google and Yahoo! had formed partnerships with various telecommunication or cable service providers in order to position their respective portals as the default entrance to the Internet. Microsoft should find methods to provide Internet users a range of services from search to e-mail and discussion blogs to news in order to compete with competitors. In the entertainment and consumer markets, Microsoft’s Xbox Live had been a leader of online gaming. The system provided classic arcade games, game trailers, and upgrade packs that were downloadable. However, the Xbox game console and the ventures in mobiles and IPTV, these products should be more consumer-oriented. The big competitors, Apple and Sony, their products are much more consumer-oriented and media savvy. For instance, Apple’s iMac and iPod products, and iTunes services were designed to cater to the high-end media centric consumers. Sony’s video games and entertainment business remained one of the strongest in the industry, particularly in the consumer electronics segment. If Microsoft’s products be more consumer-oriented, in my views, the Xbox game console and the ventures in mobiles and IPTV will be the star products in the future. However, Microsoft should pay attention to its major area, that is, personal computer software business. The superiority and proprietary advantages will be diminished if Microsoft ignored its major area. Japan and South Korea joined China in 2012 on a project to jointly develop a new operating system based on Linux as an alternative to Microsoft’s Windows. Thailand and Malaysia have instigated programs to offer low-cost PCs to citizens with Linux operating systems. It is the Butterfly Effect on global pricing. They’re being helped along by Microsoft competitors such as Sun Microsystems, which has signed a deal with the Chinese government to supply its Linux desktop operating system and office program to as many as a million PCs there. In Apple Company, Steve Jobs wants to overwhelm Microsoft in the field of operating systems. It is worth noting that, Apple’s computer hardware performance has been unmatched. However, Apple chose to â€Å"kill† Microsoft in the field of software. It means Apple was warning Microsoft intentionally: Not only IBM can be a threat to Microsoft, but also Apple. Microsoft’s competitors are trying to improve their market share in China and all over the world. Microsoft should not relax vigilance. It is still a long way to go for Microsoft. In my view, Microsoft should forge its own product culture. Apple is pursuit of elegant products. Apple adheres to creativity and uniqueness. Eventually become a model for other companies to emulate. Microsoft should find its own development route and set up unique product culture. Only in this way can Microsoft have its own distinguishing features and lead the industry. Microsoft used diversification strategy and it had entered various new markets in which it had no proprietary advantages. Facing with a bunch of new challenges, Microsoft should not confront alone. It should have new partnerships. The impression of people to Microsoft is a little bit haughty. So Microsoft should form more strategic partnerships in the future and learn more from the competitors modestly to capture opportunities in these new markets.

Would the quality of news gathering diminish if news papers no longer Essay

Would the quality of news gathering diminish if news papers no longer existed - Essay Example ly affected in a negative manner by the absence of printed newspaper distribution as professional journalistic practices have evolved along with technological advances and cultural trends. Modern technologies have provided a wider selection of news sources while simultaneously providing access to numerous resources through which to verify the veracity of the information provided. While news organizations established prior to the advent of the internet have subsequently contributed web-based versions for subscribers to the digital catalogue, other companies such as Yahoo.com have elected to create a place of their own in providing news from local, regional, national, and international sources. This glut of news sharing allows a minimum of pieces which could be regarded as yellow journalism to make it into the mainstream media as misinformation. Having numerous sources makes it more apparent when unfounded or opinion based stories are found to conflict with the reality of events. However, this spirit of collaboration and information sharing is not without its pitfalls. Numerous news agencies now employ wide spread re-publication of stories linked to national and international events throughout media, a practice which could limit the scope of available accurate and relevant reporting if left unchecked. Fortunately, circumstance dictates the limitations of duplicating information. Competition in the free market lessens the possibility of such all-consuming laziness in news gathering professions as profit remains the key to the success of an organization regardless of the medium in which the news is offered to the public. As a result, the timeliness and accuracy of the news w hich has been gathered form reputable sources constitutes the intellectual property which serves as the basis for their success and is paramount to other concerns. As familiarity and access to internet sources has spread and people have lost interest in buying printed newspapers, they have become

Individual research paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Individual research paper - Essay Example The business model followed by the company makes it a limited liability company. Other than real estate the company has trading interests and tends to export a few goods aboard such as generators, plastic products, utensils etc. but the mainstay for the company has been real estate. Like myriad other businesses in China, the Jia Nian Hua Company is a family managed venture. The current chief executive of the company, Jia Nian Hua has employed his family members in critical positions such as finance, sales and marketing in order to take advantage of their loyalty. A paternal work environment is apparent when one walks into the office as the employees look towards Mr. Jia as a fatherly figure. Mr. Jia was kind enough to allow some time for an interview concerning his business. When asked about the beginnings of the business, Mr. Jia related that he had begun dealing in real estate in the early nineties when he was employed as a government official in Beijing. In his own words, â€Å"having been associated with real estate early on I realized that China possessed immense potential for growth in coming decades. Therefore, I decided to open up a small real estate shop in Beijing to take my informal business idea to a complete business†. Being part of the government allowed Mr. Jia the critical information he required to expand into the real estate scenario because he was already well aware of where development would occur. He cited the case of new suburbs created around Beijing. Planning for development had begun in the late nineties but â€Å"acquisition of land had been slow due to fears of inflation in real estate if procurement was faster†. This indicates t hat Mr. Jia’s entry into the market as an entrepreneur was based on analytical evaluation that stemmed from information available only to select people in the Chinese government. Mr. Jia’s response also confirms the important assumption about entrepreneurs which states that entrepreneurs

Appeal letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Appeal letter - Essay Example During that time, I had a second course, which I was to attend, running concurrently with this one, and this presented me with a conflict of interest. I consulted as to whether to attend the first course or leave it and attend the second course. My instructor advised me to stay with the first course; also, he mentioned that it was not necessary for me to complete the whole book. However, afterwards, when I turned in my first paper after reading the book halfway, I got a D. I just had only one night to rewrite the work. My instructor sent the comment of my first paper to an email that I rarely used, it was not the IU mail. I had to rewrite the first paper, as well as, complete the new second paper in a very short time and in a tense mood. My stress levels were elevated since I had other assignments, and he had set a tight deadline for me to revise the paper. I worked the whole night in order to finish the assignments; the stress that I experienced must have made me to include direct quotes from the book or I thought that I could cite later. This is also, why I was so sure that I had provided the correct citations, at the end of the paper. My instructor put a lot of effort in looking for mistakes in my first and second paper, and he did not get anything to prove. If he was not discriminating me as a Chinese student, why was he spending a lot of time looking for mistakes instead of grading? I can say it is because, he did not believe Chinese students could write well. Without having any other material to prove that I plagiarized in my first paper and second paper, he said to me that he already changed the grade to F. In addition, my second paper was D+ at first. For that reason, I thought it would be meaningless to complete my third paper since this course only graded three papers and there was no exam. I had never missed any classes

History 158 Mid-term Exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

History 158 Mid-term Exam - Essay Example President William McKinley was known not to have taste for war, but the public opinion and the press proved to be a force that changed his mind and drove him onward. The violent aggression and conflicts in Cuba caused so much political and economic instability in the region. This was a cause to worry and it caught the attention of the United States which had long-held interest in managing the Western Hemisphere. The tensions between Spain and the United States had been gradually mounting for months. With the mysterious sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana harbor that killed 259 sailors and injuring 80, military intervention by the United States in Cuba became very likely. On the 11th of April 1898, President William asked for the authorization from the Congress to end the conflicts in Cuba between Spanish forces and the rebels. The United States wanted peace, tranquility and security of its citizens and the Cubans living on the island and the way to do it was to establish a stab le government which would oversee law and order maintained. McKinley was authorized by the Congress to use whatever military force deemed necessary to ensure Cuba’s Independence. ... On the 2nd of April 1917, President Wilson requested the joint session of Congress to declare war on Germany. His request for war was based upon Germany’s involvement in submarine warfare in the Mediterranean and the North Atlantic, and several attempts to get Mexico into an alliance with them against the United States. The U.S senate voted unanimously in support of war on Germany, Austria and Hungary on the 7th of December 1917 (Davis 68). Germany’s involvement in submarine attack on merchant and passenger ships was the primary driving force behind president Woodrow’s decision that led the US into World War One. President Woodrow had to balance issues regarding German’s submarines attacks as well as their numerous attempts to pull Mexico into an alliance against the United States. On the 19th of January 1917, the British intelligence had decrypted an intercepted telegram that had been sent by the German Foreign Minister Zimmerman. The telegram was sent to the Ambassador in Mexico and in it was the promise by German Government to help Mexico regain the territories it had surrendered to the US after the Mexican-American War. All that the German government wanted were the full support of Mexico in the war against the United States and its allies. Initially, the Britons had not shared the telegram news with United States officials mainly because they wanted to keep secret their ability to break the German’s code. Germany’s resumption of submarine warfare could not hold the secret back and the Britons decided to use the telegram to help sway public opinion and American officials to join the World War (Davis 73). Despite the shocking telegram’s news, President Wilson hesitated on

English Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

English - Assignment Example es a letter from Frank Baldry, the real cousin of Chris the war soldier informing Jenny that Chris, during the course of war, had suffered from amnesia and had lost his recent memory. His old memories however are intact. Therefore, Jenny learns from Frank that the portion of the memory of Chris that was affected by amnesia was the one which had Kitty her wife in it. He failed to remember even a slight memory regarding Kitty. On the other hand he considers his youth memories with Margret as quite fresh. Later in the novel one also learns that before coming home, Chris sent a letter to Margret in France asking her to meet him upon his return. Margret Grey, unlike Kitty, was quite a simple person and not that wealthy. She had signs of aging on her and the indications of youth from her face had almost disappeared entirely. But ine learns later in the novel that although what some might call a lowly life, she was quite satisfied with it. During the course of this paper, the main aspects of the novel would be elaborated along with some of the hidden significances. Shedding some critical light on the novel, it can be easily observed that there is a sheer uncomfortable atmosphere all along the novel. One sees that Kitty, a woman of pure class who was admired by everyone, and who was the queen of Chris’s heart and his humongous stately house had within an instant, after learning of the letter had her conditions changed upside down. The mansion of hers was no more a luxury anymore as both the stately house and the name of Chris haunted her emotions of the affections that Chris used to have towards her. Contrary to the usual scenario of a soldier’s return to his home after the war, the novel draws a blurred picture of the severe trauma he faces as a result of the war and what’s even more tragic, the impact of all that trauma on the girls back home, one his wife, second his cousin and the third his old lover. In a broader aspect, one can say that the effect of the

Gender & Sexual Studies. Joan Acker-Class Question, Feminist Answers Assignment

Gender & Sexual Studies. Joan Acker-Class Question, Feminist Answers - Assignment Example Acker uses the term to describe the general position of women and how the society has come to accept and practice the dictates of hegemonic masculinity which is an extension of the patriarchal leanings. In the book, Acker talks of the general imbalance of men and women in senior position and privileged positions within our corporations. She explains that this is no way a reflection of education but representative of hegemonic masculinity. In practice, the term implies that our society is still laden with gendered inequality. This prompts questions and effort on how such inequality can be addressed to achieve a balanced society that does not judge on gender but on ability. Beyond the book, the term can be used in creating awareness on how gender biasness has created a chasm in our society. Question 2-Means of provisioning Acker constantly uses the term provisioning to describe the activities that people engage in, mostly informal, to be able to cater for their basic needs. She cites a ctivities such as babysitting as a means of provisioning. In a wider scope, and in relation to the economy, means of provisioning appears to refer to all activities that hold the capacity to provide a means of livelihood for members of various classes within an economy. An example of how she uses the term is in her efforts to define class; in this instance she cites â€Å"class as a differing and unequal situation in access to and control over the means of provisioning and survival† (Acker 55). The term implies a struggle between classes, an effort to compete for the limited economic means which are largely beneficial in ensuring livelihood. Question 3-Corporate Nonresponsibility In Acker’s view, corporate nonresponsiblity represents a situation where modern day corporations pass on certain responsibilities, mainly survival and caring work, to households. This places greater responsibility to women who are in essence home keepers. Through corporate nonresponsibility, o rganizations relay responsibility from centers of wealth and power to those with little resources. In a large scope, Acker uses this term to bring into perspective the role of wealth centers, mainly corporations, in compounding the culture of class suppression and gender biasness. This is because these centers refuse to take on responsibilities that would otherwise grant women a favorable chance in competing for opportunities in the corporate world. In the book, Acker uses the term severally, but perhaps one situation where she draws on a practical illustration is when she notes Wal-Mart as an example of corporate nonresponsibility. She notes the corporation as a â€Å"prime example of corporate nonresponsibility mainly by turning workers into lowest cost, easily replaceable, factors of production† (Acker, 162). Question 4-Unpaid Labor/reproductive labor Unpaid labor or reproductive labor is brought to the fore in an attempt to describe the value and contribution of women to a capitalist economy. In essence, it represents labor that is actually not compensated but one that has value to the economy. An example of unpaid labor is domestic labor. In her larger argument, Acker appears to â€Å"monetize† this class of labor and also brings into perspective the idea that women are basically the victims of unpaid labor. In this context, she appears to link unpaid labor and the unfortunate position of women whose efforts are not duly compensated and whose position is majorly determined by the men they support. An example of how

Interm Acct Essay Example for Free

Interm Acct Essay 1. What is the defining distinction between for-profit businesses and not-for-profit, including governments? What are the implications of this distinction for financial reporting? Governments and not-for-profits provide services that are targeted to groups of constituents who advocate a political or social cause or who carry out research or other activities for the betterment of society. The objectives of governments and not-for-profits cannot generally e expressed in dollars and cents and are often ambiguous. Government and not-for-profit have relationships (unlike with a business) with the parties providing their resources. 2. Why is the budget a far more important document in both governments and not-for-profits than it is in businesses? Revenues and expenditures are controlled or strongly influenced through the budgetary process. 3. What is meant by â€Å"interperiod equity†? What is its consequences for financial reporting? The term interperiod equity is the concept that emphasizes that entities should not transfer costs eve to future years, let alone future generations. 4. Why may the â€Å"matching concept† be less relevant for governments and not-for-profits than it is for businesses? 5. What is the significance for financial reporting of the many restrictions that are placed upon a government’s resources? 6. Why is it difficult to develop accounting principles that are appropriate for governments within the same category and even more difficult to develop them for governments within different categories? 7. What is the significance for financial reporting of a government’s power to tax? How does it affect the government’s overall financial strength? 8. Why has it proven especially difficult to establish accounting principles that enable governments to satisfy all three elements of GASB’s first objective of financial reporting in a single statement of revenue and expenditures or balance sheet?

Ethnic Cleansing And Genocide Criminology Essay

Ethnic Cleansing And Genocide Criminology Essay As long as I have any choice, I will stay only in a country where political liberty, toleration, and equality of all citizens before the law are the rule. -Albert Einstein. For centuries, man has been fighting with his brother, over man-made issues of differences in their status, nationality, race, colour, religion to name a few. In India itself, this differentiation has taken shape in the form of differences in class, differences between Muslims and Hindus, Sikhs and Christians, recent incidents taking place in Orissa and Kerala are gory examples of the same. In fact, this in essence has also taken place in Maharashtra in 2008 wherein almost 20,000 North Indians fled Pune and other such cities, the same revealed by an article in the Indian Express. Statistics in fact have shown that man is being a threat himself to another man causing his mass exodus. Despite the advancement in technology man doesnt seem to want to co-exist with another, a deficiency which will lead to its self-destruction sooner or later. This is essentially the concept of ethnic cleansing, an international crime progressively taking more antagonistic forms as time passes. In principle, an ethnic group  [1]  would be defined as a community whose heritage offers important characteristics in common between its members and which makes them distinct from other communities. There is a boundary, which separates us from them, and the distinction would probably be recognized on both sides of that boundary. Ethnicity is a multi-faceted phenomenon based on physical appearance, subjective identification, cultural and religious affiliation, stereotyping, and social exclusion.  [2]   The phrase ethnic cleansing was originally introduced by reporters covering the Yugoslav wars of disintegration between 1991 and 1995, but as a course of action it is much older than that.  [3]  By definition, it has been defined as a phenomenon wherein one ethnic group expels members of other ethnic groups from a geographic area in order to create ethnically pure enclaves for members of their ethnic group.  [4]   However, the complexities involved when it comes to ethnic cleansing, is that till date despite the number of occurrences there exists a blur when it comes to differences between genocide and ethnic cleansing.  [5]  Also, the number of incidents wherein ethnic cleansing has taken place makes one question the effectiveness and the authority of the UN and the several other peace keeping bodies.  [6]   It is also pertinent to note that while in theory, the purpose of ethnic cleansing is to drive all members of the victimized group out of a territory. In practice, ethnic cleansing is nearly synonymous with genocide because mass murder is a common characteristic of both. Though, therefore, there is a thin line between the two crimes, it is the need of the hour to differentiate between the two crimes and do away with the pervasive ambiguities. analysis: genocide and its incidents: In order, to be able to differentiate between the concepts of genocide and ethnic cleansing it is first important to understand each of these concepts individually. Ergo, this part will basically focus on the definition of genocide as arrived at in several landmark judgments and also its main essentials, with the natural corollary of looking at the definition of ethnic cleansing. The term genocide was coined by Raphael Lemkin using the combination of the Greek word genos (race or tribe) and the Latin word cide (killing).  [7]  Article II of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1948 defines the term genocide to include killing, causing serious bodily or mental harm, amongst several other things  [8]  , which was accepted as being part and parcel of the customary international law or jus cogens in the case of Prosecutor v. Goran Jelisic.  [9]   The case of Advisory Opinon of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, defines genocide as follows: a crime under international law involving a denial of the right of existence of entire human groups, a denial which shocks the conscience of mankind and results in great losses to humanity, which is contrary to moral law and to the spirit and aims of the United Nations.  [10]   Genocide without exceptions made is considered to the most despicable crime when it comes to crimes against humanity, which is why Courts are reluctant in arriving at a conclusion which affirms the existence of genocide. It essentially requires two components for the said crime to take the form of genocide, viz. Actus Reus and Mens Rea. These go hand in hand wherein if any of the acts mentioned above have been committed with the necessary specific intent (dolus specialis).  [11]   In the Jelisic  [12]  case it was held that the special nature of this intent supposes the discriminatory nature of the act wherein a group is targeted discriminatorily as such and in this context genocide is closely related to the crime against humanity.  [13]  The Court again found the existence of this specific intent in the case of Akeysu  [14]  wherein the Trial Chamber I held that the rape of Tutsi women in Rwanda in 1994 constituted the crime of genocide.  [15]  In the case of Bosnia-Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia it was held that genocide could be committed both at time of peace as well as of armed conflict.  [16]   Therefore, a perusal of the aforementioned cases clearly shows there is a need of specific intent in case of indictments for the crime of genocide.  [17]   Ethnic Cleansing and its incidents: The 1990s has had the most number of instances wherein the crime of ethnic cleansing has been recorded. This has been attributed by the UN to various political parties which indulge in the same by ruling various States. This power was clearly wielded by the Shiv Sena party in Maharashtra with their jingoistic tactics in expelling Non-Maharashtrians. Blacks Law Dictionary defines ethnic cleansing as: The officially sanctioned forcible and systematic diminution or elimination of targeted ethnic minorities from a geographic area by confiscating real and personal property, ordering or condoning mass murders and mass rapes and expelling the survivors. Few authors are of the opinion that the crime of ethnic cleansing is a 20th Century phenomenon while most others disagree.  [18]  A prototype of ethnic cleansing can be taken from the experience of the Jews during the Nazi Regime, where in order to create Lebensraum, or living space, Hitler, the dictator started an expansionist drive to create a pure Germany. The term ethnic cleansing, a literal translation of the Serbo-Croatian phrase etnicko ciscenje, has resulted in a lot of atrocities like mass killings as well as rape as a means of creating supremacy over the minorities.  [19]   In many of these campaigns, women were targeted for particularly brutal treatment-including systematic rape and enslavement-in part because they were viewed by perpetrators as the carriers, biologically and culturally, of the next generation of their nations. Because many men in victimized populations left their families and communities to join resistance groups once violence began, women and children were often defenseless.  [20]  Statistics shows that the Bosnia-Herzegovina war envisaged a shocking estimate of 20,000 women who endured sexual assaults in the form of either torture or rape. Serbian political and military leaders systematically planned and strategically executed this policy of ethnic cleansing or genocide with the support of the Serbian and Bosnian Serb armies and paramilitary groups to create a Greater Serbia: a religiously, culturally, and linguistically homogenous Serbian nation.5  [21]  The promulgation of the concept of ethnic cleansing and the practices it represents are a grim, contemporary reminder of the global nature of interethnic and interracial inequality and strife.  [22]   The following passage taken from an article is proof of the mass destruction and depraved justice that took place during the Bosnia-Herzegovina War: More than two million people-almost half the population- are still dispossessed of their homes. Some 600,000 of these are refugees abroad who have not yet found durable solutions, many of whom face the prospect of compulsory return into displacement within Bosnia and Herzegovina in the near future. Another 800,000 have been internally displaced to areas in the control of their own ethnic group, living in multiple occupancy situations, in collective centres or in property vacated by the displacement of others, often in situations of acute humanitarian concern. The fundamental issue for the future of the post-war society of Bosnia and Herzegovina is whether these people can or will return to their homes.  [23]   A case study shows that the challenges of post 1980 former Yugoslavia were exacerbated by the countrys demographic and socio-cultural make-up, comprising several ethnonationalities with different religions, mentalities, histories and levels of development. In the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina the authoritarian regimes and their leaders were the main sources of human rights violations. Nationalism and hatred of other peoples and religions were probably the reasons for the brutal break up of the former Yugoslavia. Ethnonationalism was, and has largely remained, widely and deeply entrenched among the constituent groups.  [24]   Various authorities indicate that the notion of ethnic cleansing takes place when there is a deportation of mass population on the basis of their ethnic differences in order to create a homogenous ethnic State. While a crime like genocide inevitably results in imposing criminal liability, it has been stated by several authors that since the term ethnic cleansing does not appear in any of the laws the same is not punishable as long as genocide, rape or other crimes against humanity have not been used, which have been banned by several legal instrument.  [25]   This argument however is to be rendered untenable  [26]  as though, ethnic cleansing per se doesnt feature under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, it can be included under crimes against humanity under Article 7 which speaks of Deportation or forcible transfer of population  [27]  equivalent to ethnic cleansing. Moreover, a perusal of the Statute of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia under Article 4  [28]  also makes the crime of ethnic cleansing punishable. The Trial Chamber  [29]  in a particular case was satisfied beyond reasonable doubt that the crimes that were committed in the Bosnian Krajina from April 1992 until the end of December 1992, the period relevant to the Indictment, occurred as a direct result of the over-arching Strategic Plan. The ethnic cleansing was not a by-product of the criminal activity; it was its very aim and thus an integral part of the Strategic Plan.  [30]   Therefore, a perusal of the aforementioned authorities helps one understand essentially the concept of ethnic cleansing and the essentials thereof. differences between the two: Andrew Bell-Fialkoff in his book, has remarked thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the crime of ethnic cleansing defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory.  [31]   Different authors have different opinions regarding the differences between these two, while some state such a difference exists only in theory while other claim it to exist practically as well. From a perusal of the above, genocide and ethnic cleansing can be differentiated in three ways: (1) Need of intent: Genocide could be a means to commit ethnic cleansing, but the purpose of such a crime then would not be murder but would be otherwise. Furthermore, in contrast to genocide, there is no need for special intent under the crime of ethnic cleansing, making it easier for parties to establish a crime of ethnic cleansing in comparison to a charge of genocide leveled against a particular party to the dispute.  [32]  It has been found under various texts that the requirement of specific intent is not found under ethnic cleansing, making it easier to prove before the International Courts in comparison to the crime of genocide.  [33]   (2) The purpose: The purpose under genocide is the physical destruction of an ethnical, racial or a religious group, while that of ethnic cleansing is the founding of ethnically homogeneous lands. The means used for the latter could also be genocide.  [34]   (3) Ends achieved: While genocide results in physical destruction of a particular minority groups, ethnic cleansing results in the flight of a community not necessarily mass killing.  [35]   As found in the previously, it may not always be feasible to point out differences between the two. In fact, this clear cut distinction has been reduced by various subsequent measures taken by the authoritative bodies. In 1992 concerning the hostilities in Yugoslavia, the UN General Assembly  [36]  clearly stated that ethnic cleansing is a form of genocide.  [37]   To worsen the situation, in the case of Prosecutor v. Krstic,  [38]  , the Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), expressly diverging from the wider interpretation of the notion of intent to destroy by the United Nations made a difference between ethnic cleansing and genocide. an enterprise attacking only the cultural or sociological characteristics of a human group in order to annihilate these elements which give to that group its own identity distinct from the rest of the community would not fall under the definition of genocide. Similarly, in the case of Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro (Case concerning the application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide) the International Court of Justice  [39]  have also upheld the above judgment based on the same reasoning.  [40]  Various scholars also have given views similar to that found in the above cases wherein a distinction has been made between the two offences.  [41]   Therefore, there remains doubt in this unchattered territory, but courts generally refrain from holding a state or an official responsible for the offence of genocide in comparison to that of ethnic cleansing. Conclusion: From an analysis of the above judgments, we find that there exists a very thin line between the concepts of genocide and that of ethnic cleansing. There is a need to attain consistency with regard to the various opinions on the same, consistency being an essential or cannon of any law. The basic bone of contention is in fact this lack of uniformity in interpreting the law by the courts. That apart, a need is felt that stricter international norms be laid down in order to ensure that a crime like ethnic cleansing taking the form of international crimes like rape, genocide does not take place at the ferocity that it has been since the 1990s.  [42]   It should be realized by the UN and various other monitoring bodies that it is imperative that a clear cut distinction be made between the two, agreed, a strait-jacket formula cannot be applied, but it should lay down certain parameters for determining when ethnic cleansing takes place. As of now, the definition of the said terms remains uncertain in international law. States should realize that even the magna carta Universal Declaration of Human Rights  [43]  ordains equality on each and every human being, which would immediately render the offence of ethnic cleansing purposeless.  [44]   It is to be necessarily understood that, As long as the criminals are divided into ours and theirs; as long as ethnic discrimination is not replaced with moral and professional criteria; as long as already initiated democratic processes do not take roots; there will be little chance of reconciliation, economic development and respect for the human rights and freedoms.  [45]   Therefore, an attempt has been made by virtue of this project to understand the basic differences between these two types of crimes which are basically instigated against other human beings and the same conclusion has been arrived at with the help of leadings judgments and opinions of various authors on the same. Ethnic cleansing results in the division of a particular country into several fragments, there more the disputes the more these fragments will break and finally there shall be nothing for one to offer. This has been aptly illustrated in the following paragraph: In Germany they first came for the communists; and I didnt speak up because I wasnt a communist. Then they came for the Jews; and I didnt speak up because I wasnt a Jew. Then they came for the trade unionists; and I didnt speak up because I wasnt a trade unionist. Then they came for the Catholics; and I didnt speak up because I wasnt a Catholic. Then they came for me and by that time there was nobody left to speak up. Martin Niemoller

The Resource Curse in Africa

The Resource Curse in Africa Chapter 1: Introduction The resource curse is the theory that countries with an abundance of natural resources, such as oil and minerals, achieve less economic growth than countries that are not endowed with natural resources. There are authors that argue this point (Auty 1990, Gelb 1988, Sachs and Warner 1995, 1997, 1999) and there are those that believe the resource curse is less to do with resources and more to do with political management (Brunschweiler 2008a, 2008b, Ross 1999, 2001). This theory appears to be contrary to the immediate instinct felt by many that natural resources will provide an opportunity for countries to develop by using increased revenues associated with a discovery of resources or an increase in world prices of such resources. The first section of this paper discusses a few of the most important mechanisms in which the resource curse can manifest itself. These are through institutions, corruption, conflict, Dutch disease and human capital. The second section studies the case of Botswana by providing an understanding of Botswanas economic and development path I will investigate how Botswana avoided some of the traps resource abundant countries usually fall into and how Botswana managed diamond mining in order to benefit the country. I will also perform a small comparison between Botswana and Sierra Leone to highlight the different channels in which resource abundance can affect economies. In my final chapter I will analyse whether Botswana has been successful in fully escaping the resource curse symptoms by discussing any problems the diamond mining may have caused. This paper, whilst small, highlights the importance of investigating phenomena such as the resource curse. Many countries have fallen into poverty since the emergence of extractable resources in their economies, yet Botswana has managed to avoid such problems. It is important to analyse how Botswana did this, so that lesson may be learned and used to help other countries avoid such problems in the future. The Resource Curse Literature Review Explanation of resource curse There are examples of resource poor countries outperforming resource rich countries throughout history. In recent times the Asian Tigers have achieved fast industrialization and economic growth despite having few natural resources, where as diamond rich countries such as Sierra Leone still remain low on world economic and social indicators (World Bank Development Indicators 2009). But do natural resources always lead to poor economic development? Or are there other variables in the context of which the natural resources are placed that determine economic development? There has been much discussion on the resource curse topic. Prominent among them are studies by Sachs and Warner (1995, 1997, 1999). Although in the conclusion to the paper Sachs et al admit their findings are far from definitive the general findings are that there is evidence for a negative relation between natural resource intensity and subsequent growth (Sachs and Warner 1995:p27). They analysed data from 95 developing countries by looking at annual growth rate between 1970-1990 and resource based exports in 1970. Sachs and Warner classified high abundance of natural resources as exports of agriculture, mineral and fuel as a percentage of GDP. From this simple analysis they discovered the existence of the so-called resource curse and they then tested the theory by controlling a number of other variables that could explain the relationship between resources and slow economic growth. The following discussion will provide a summary of the key mechanisms identified in the literature. Critique However it is important to note that not all academics support the literature on the existence of the resource curse, Brunnschweiler (2008a) is the most prominent. The main critiques of work by Sachs and Warner are the variables used to measure resource wealth. Brunschweiler for example believes per capita mineral wealth is more appropriate. The question is also raised as to whether Sachs and Warner were right to include agriculture in their regressions. Although agriculture is indeed a primary natural product, as it is the outcome of utilising the resource of land, it can be said that agriculture takes a different path in the economy than minerals or fuel. It may be better to classify agriculture separately when considering the resource curse, especially in the context of the third world where many economies are agricultural based. Further in this paper I will analyse whether agricultural resources cause the same effects on the economy as mineral resources. Arguments against the Resource Curse Big push theory Whilst there is no denial that the resource curse has effected countries like Venezuela, Nigeria and the Congo (Wenar 2008) there have been cases such as Botswana and Norway that have given strength to the opposing big push theory. In the big push model, developing economies are stuck in a trap. In order to develop their economies they need to industrialize so they are able to create wealth of their own. However there are large fixed costs associated with industrialization that developing economies cannot afford. Thus, the name big push comes from the idea that developing economies require a large injection of capital in order to develop. This injection of capital can be used to invest in economic infrastructure and will allow a more rapid accumulation of human capital which further allows social and economic development. (Murphy, Shleifer and Vishny 1989, Birdsall et al 2000) Ironically, this injection of capital could arise from large resource revenues, which suggests that the resource curse may be avoided if the capital is handled in a productive manner, for example a long-term and sustainable plan. An important point made by Walker and Jourdan (2003) is that as access to resources and minerals is becoming easier due to decreased transportation costs, countries are able to sustain industry without having a large natural resource base. This is could mean that countries who are not resource abundant might be better off, as they experience less adverse side-effects that I will discuss in this paper than resource rich economies. Dutch Disease The first effect, cited by Sachs (1995) and many others (Norberg 1993, Gelb 1988) is the Dutch Disease. Although it is often linked to the discovery of a natural resource, Dutch disease can occur when there is any positive income shock. For example a significant rise in primary product world prices can create sudden increased revenues for primary product exporters. The earliest Dutch Disease model I can trace was first created by Corden (1984) and the model has been constantly remodelled and analysed by other academics since. There are two strands of the Dutch disease model, the resource movement effect and the currency appreciation effect. Currency Appreciation Effect Dutch disease is often known as de-industrialisation because as one sector of the economy booms, (in the case of this paper we are talking about the tradable natural resource sector) other tradable sectors of the economy become less competitive. This is because a sudden increase in exportation of a natural resource of any kind can cause currency appreciation (Dutch disease). Whilst this is good for the country as it makes imports cheaper, it makes all the exports from the country (apart from the natural resource) less competitive in the world market as it costs other countries more money to from that particular country. The same path is also true for investment in this sector. This is why the manufacturing sector of resource abundant countries often shrinks. Resource Movement Effect The resource movement effect is the relocation of production factors away from the manufacturing sectors towards to booming (natural resource) sector. Davis and Tilton (2005:238) believe the Dutch disease actually allows a country to benefit from its new found mineral wealth by encouraging resources to flow from other sectors of the economy to the booming sector: However, this resource movement is also a cause of the shrinking of the manufacturing sector noted above. An important point argued in Sachs and Warner (1997) is that the shrinkage of a manufacturing sector itself is not a problem. The problem arises when the shrinkage causes slow economic growth, such a case may occur when an economy becomes more dependent on their natural resources. The advisability of this is not good (Jefferis 1998) as the economy becomes more vulnerable to world price changes in the natural resource. In turn, these often volatile price changes make it hard for governments to make mid or long term economic plans and policies. This is often said to be what happened in the oil rich Middle East in the 1970s (Auty 1990) governments were over optimistic about the earning power of their resources and then the oil prices fell dramatically. However the shrinkage of the manufacturing sector can have a negative impact on the economy because productivity grows faster in the manufacturing sector than in the resource sector (REF) and a decline in this sector means the economy is losing out on this productivity. A similar argument is made by Gylfason (2001) about learning-by-doing and technological advances. The shrinking of a tradable manufacturing sector also creates job losses; usually this could be compensated for as the primary product resource sector expands. But most minerals and oil sectors are capital intensive and not labour intensive (Sarraf 2001), so they are not able to absorb the unemployment. Institutions Another strand of the resource curse theory is the analysis of the relationship between resource abundance and institutions. Defining institutions is a difficult job as it can involve many different aspects of a countries history, culture and government. The main reason why institution analysis is vital to discovering the relationship between resource abundance and economic growth is that institutions affect policy structure and policy structure sets the arena in which an economy and resources are managed. Colonisation Firstly, the history of a nation can go a long way to explaining the current situation a nation faces today. Acemoglu et al (2001) notes the importance of colonisation is the determination of institutions. In his view there are two types of colonisation. There is settlement colonisation whereby the colonisers decided to settle in the region, perhaps due to a low incidence of deadly infectious diseases, as occurred by the British in North America. The settlement colonies are mostly made up of the new world, such as North America and Australasia. The second type of colony are extractive colonies, whereby the colonisers extracted resources that they found valuable, be it people as slaves or minerals. Naturally, these two different paths have caused quite different outcomes in institutions. Intuitive thinking would lead us to believe that traits of a colonisers such as property rights and rules of law would be embedded in there colonies. Indeed, Murshed (2001) and Acemoglu et al (2001) publish papers along the same lines. This theory leads to the thinking that colonies with exploitative colonisers tended to not establish foreign good institutions to the same strength as settled areas. It could be argued, as by Murshed, that patterns of exploitative behaviour with regard to resources were learned and inevitably repeated by colonies. On the other hand, settled colonies tended to retain institutions of law and property rights that European colonisers may have brought over. Acemoglu has raised the point that different colonising nations have left very different institutions behind. For example, he argues that the British colonies inherited better institutions with regard to respect for the rule of law and democracy (Acemoglu et al 2001:p12). In either case it is evident that institutions brought in from Europe have remained in some form. However, we must not forget that the colonies of Africa, Asia and Latin America existed long before they were discovered by the Europeans. Prior to colonisation these countries had their own functioning political and social institutions and it could be that European invaders only adapted these institutions to fit their needs and left many existing ways intact. A small but important point to note is that colonisation could also have had an impact on the ethno linguistic and ethno fractionalisation of a country because artificial country borders were placed upon areas of land with no regards to considering the existing, and it could be argued natural, borders. These artificial borders were emplaced for the ease of the colonisers and very little consideration was given to existing social borders, for example between tribes or geographical boundaries. This enforced ethno fractionalisation can be the cause of conflict within a country, even if natural resources are not in the equation, a prime example of this is in Rwanda. Leite and Weidmann (2002) are of the opinion that resource wealth does not directly affect economic growth, but that it resources affect the likelihood of corruption, which therefore influences economic growth. Bulte, Damania and Deacon (2005) further this argument by pointing out it may not be the existence of institutions that matter but the quality. In Bulte et al (2005) analysis they differentiate between two types of resources. Point resources which are geographically based and therefore an abundance of these resources are typically associated with inequality in terms of power and the division of the surplus, and often are accompanied by vertical relationships between agents (shareholders, managers, labourers). (Bulte et al 2005:p1031). Whereas diffuse resources, such as agricultural land, are more geographically spread and are therefore more equally distributed and less able to be protected by an elite. It is the belief of Bulte et al (p1034) that point resources attract worse quality institutions than diffuse resources with regard to corruption and government performance. Corruption An abundance of natural resources provides substantial revenue for an economy but unfortunately in many developing countries where there are weak infrastructures and poor people, the temptation of this revenue can cause corruption especially in the political sphere. When a government experiences large flows of finance, especially if these flows are relatively sudden, for example a discovery of minerals or oil, or new technology that helps extract resources, it can be hard for a government to manage such flows (Dietz 2005). They may not have had experience in dealing with large sums of money. These sudden windfalls increase the opportunity for corruption as it is hard to keep track of the money and therefore it is easier and to steal and waste. Corruption also comes in the form of laziness. The political elite may chose to ensure they remain in power by buying political favour using the resource revenues. This undermines democracy, but as politicians are able to obtain large sums of money from resources it is easier to buy political favour than to develop good policies and there is little incentive to build infrastructure in other areas of the economy, as resources are the main source of income. One would assume that if areas of the economy were to start failing or not being developed and maintained to a satisfactory standard of the citizens then the citizens would demand action from the government. However, in circumstances where an abundance of resources are in the country, the government often tries to buy favour from the people by not taxing the citizens, instead they use the resource revenues to provide basic infrastructure, such circumstances could be classed as the rentier effect cited by Mehlum (2006) and Brunschweiler (2008a). On the other hand, the government could decide to use the resource revenues to aid them in an effort to block the formation of social groups. The government might try to do this because they fear groups independent of the government may demand more from a government that is unwilling to give more. As Ross (2001: p335) argues Scholars examining the cases of Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, and Iran have all observed oil-rich states blocking the formation of independent social groups; all argue that the state is thereby blocking a necessary precondition of democracy. This is one of the many ways resources appear to affect politics. Whilst the basics are still provided and the people have more money in their hands, the situation can cause problems as the government is not longer held accountable as it is not using the peoples money. Therefore the relationship between government and citizens breaks down. This leads to a less democratic society and one that Karl (1997) believes would be one more vulnerable to civil war. Conflict As previously discussed weak institutions and corruption can both lead to conditions that breed conflict as they diminish the governments ability to function properly. Although a lot of studies are unable to show a strong link between resource extraction and civil conflict (Ross 2004), in recent history there have been many examples of the internal conflict within countries that are abundant in diamonds, such examples are Sierra Leone and Angola. Collier and Hoeffler (2001) cite that war emerges as either a product of grievance or greed. In the case of natural resources it appears that greed is most likely due to the enormity of the revenues compared to other forms of government revenue. The conflict often takes the form of civil war within a country as fractions of society jockey for control over the resource wealth (although the conflict can also take the form of hidden conflict within governments). Collier (2004) suggests that high social and economic inequality, lack of political rights and religious or ethnic divisions in society cause civil wars. The presence of natural resources can act as a catalyst by highlighting these faults and at the same time creating a financial incentive for war. If conflict does occur then (Brunschweiler 2008b) believes it could be the case the conflict makes countries dependent on resource extraction which is the default response when other economic sectors are not performing well. This indicates that once a country enters into conflict due to resources, they may have entered a vicious cycle that will be hard to stop. Fractionalisation within resource abundance societies has been greatly studied (Easterly and Levine 1997, Brunschweiler and Erwin 2009) as it is believed that societies that are fractioned by class struggles, ethnicity or religion have weaker institutions (Hoedler 2006). In turn weaker institutions lead to a diminished ability of the government to control situations and therefore fighting is more likely to erupt (Arezki et al 2007). Whilst the fragmentation in society is the basis for the fighting, the presence of resources can be seen as the trigger or catalyst for conflict. Fighting is bad for economic growth as it decreases productive activities, which lowers productions and lowers incomes (Hoedler 2006). Therefore in general the consensus is that the more homogeneous the society, the less likely the risk of conflict. Having high revenues from resources can also lead to rentier state symptoms as discussed previously. In this case it may be that those in control of resource revenues are constantly on the lookout for opposing groups trying wrest control from them. Unfortunately as they are the ones controlling the revenues, they have money to repress citizens by not only repressing social groups but by employing armed conflict if they require. This is why (Brunschweiler 2008b) believes that as governments are able to fund themselves they are more likely to be authoritarian. Although Rosss (2001) paper primarily discusses the Middle Eastern oil states, he admits that his findings can relate to other mineral economies outside the Middle East. This repression can also distort the economy by squashing entrepreneurial talent (Alayli 2005) However there are some scholars who believe that resource abundance can actually help avoid conflict, for example, Brunnschweiler and Bulte (2008b) say resource wealth raises income, and higher incomes, in turn, reduce the risk of conflict. However, they admit it is a small reduction in risk and it could be that the large prize (resource revenue) that people are able to fight over is a stronger incentive than higher incomes. The link between ethnic fragmentation and the resource curse has been investigated in a paper by Roland Hodler (2006). The aim of his paper is to explain why resources can be a blessing for some countries and a curse for other. For him, there are two effects of natural resources. Firstly, income of a country rises if the country chooses to use the resource for its own industrial benefit or exports them to other countries; this is a direct positive effect. Secondly, an indirect negative effect is natural resource wealth increases conflict, but only (according to Hodler) if there are multiple groups opposing each other. Hodler focuses on rivalling ethnic groups, but other groups that could affect the equilibrium are class groups and political groups. In Hodlers model the resource abundance is a blessing to a country if the direct positive effect is greater than the indirect negative effect, but a curse if the negative outweighs the positive and thus a relatively homogenous society is l ess likely to experience a resource curse as there are less opposing groups challenging the equilibrium. Linked with this argument is that of Bannon and Collier (2003:3) that ethnic dominance alongside resource richness breeds conflict. Ethnic dominance especially in government or institutions has an important advantage because that race then have the power in moderating and equalising ethnic relations, or neglecting and perhaps exacerbating them (Good 2005:p31) The magnitude of the negative effect in Hodlers paper is determined by the number of opposing groups. The higher the number of groups the weaker property rights. I take my definition of property rights from Acemoglu et al (2001) whereby people have secure property rights (rights against expropriation and that those with productive opportunities expect to receive returns on their investment and that a broad cross-section of society have the opportunity to invest. Furthermore Acemoglu et al (2001) make the point that relative political stability is needed in order to maintain these property rights. Human Capital As we can see that the resource curse is interlinked with many aspects of economics. It is also linked with human capital: education and health. Education is important in economic development as it raises labour efficiency, provides a more participative society and a better quality of life (Barro 1997), but is educational development being affected by the resource curse? Evidence by Gylfason (et al 2001: p850) shows that school enrolment at all levels tends to be inversely related to natural resource abundance, as measured by the share of the labour force engaged in primary production, across countries. Questions could be raised about the validity behind using such measures and whether other measures are more appropriate but there is plenty of evidence from other authors such as (Birdsall et al 1997) which come to the same conclusion. There are two prominent arguments about the effect the resource curse has on education and vice versa. Firstly, the vast revenues created by an abundant resource can be used by forward thinking governments to fund education (Sachs and Warner 1997). On the other hand, it has been argued by Gylfason that some resource dependent economies choose not to invest in education infrastructure as they see little immediate need for it because high skill labour and high quality capital are less common in primary production then elsewhere (Gylfason 2001: p10). However focusing on resources (and neglecting education) hinders the learning-by-doing process. This process is more likely to develop, along with gains in technological advances, in the manufacturing sector (Sachs and Warner 1995). Thereby depending on resources and neglecting education can slow economic growth as a whole as there is no incentive to increase the earning power (both at individual and national level) that can be achieved thr ough education. It is also worthy to note that education is strongly linked with a higher rate of absorbing new technologies from other countries (Birdsall 1997). The Case of Botswana Although in the previous section I discussed ways in which an abundance of natural resources could lead to slow economic growth, there have been countries that are resource rich and have had good economic development: for example Norway and Botswana. Norway became one of the top scoring countries on both economic and social indicators in the world (Larson 2003) since the extraction of oil in the early 1970s. Graphs showing growth of Botswana compared to other African nations here In this section I aim to discuss the experience of Botswana through the same key mechanisms I used in the previous chapter. These mechanisms are Dutch disease, institutions, conflict and human capital. By using the same key mechanisms I hope to show how Botswana has avoided the problems that cause the resource curse. Botswana has developed relatively rapidly considering that Botswana was the third poorest country in the world before independence (Beaulier 2003:p233) As Acemoglu et al (2001) points out there were only 22 graduate Batswana, who studied outside the country and only 12km of paved road. It seems that Botswana was in the same position as the majority of Sub-Saharan Africa. But since the average growth in Africa has been negative since 1965 (Acemoglu et al 2001) how has Botswana managed to achieve the highest rate of per capita growth of any country in the world in the last 35 years (Acemoglu et al 2001)? Especially considering that as a resource rich country it could be expected that Botswana would have slower growth than those without resources. Dutch Disease There are contradicting views as to whether Botswana experienced Dutch disease and whether this was due to the presence of diamonds. Mogotsi (2002:129) thinks that a mild Dutch disease occurred in Botswana as there was no large pre-existing manufacturing sector, so when mining occurred, the skilled labour from the small manufacturing sector moved to mining. Less skilled agricultural workers filled the place of the old manufacturing workers. As they are less skilled there is some loss of productivity and efficiency in the manufacturing sector. However Pegg (2009:p2) believes that there is little evidence that agriculture or manufacturing in Botswana has suffered from Dutch disease effects like the Dutch Disease model predicts when there is a large tradable mining sector. This is because there is very little resource movement as the diamond industry in Botswana as diamond mining is capital intensive and site specific (Jefferis 1998). This lack of movement means that few positive externalities are present in Botswanas mining industry. This is evident in the employment rates. Whilst Botswana has many good economic and social indicators, unfortunately a high unemployment rate is not one of them. While mining production contributed 40% to GDP, it absorbed only 4% total employment (Iimi 2006a:p7). This has large implications for income distribution and inequality in Botswana. As wages are higher in the diamond industry (REF) it distorts wealth in the economy. It has been said that only around half of the population have benefitted from the increased revenues, outside of gains in education, healthcare and infrastructure. This is reflected in around 50% of the population still living below the poverty line despite GDP per capita being around $1000 as there is a small workforce for diamonds and a high unemployment rate in general. (http://www.thuto.org/ubh/bw/bhp5.htm) However, in the resource curse theorem if Dutch disease were to occur then imports would be cheaper. As Botswana is 80% Kalahari Desert (Beaulier 2003) agriculture is not a major industry and as such Botswana imports most of its needs. 75% of imports come from neighbouring South Africa (Iimi 2006b:p18) there are very little visible effects of the negative sides of Dutch disease. Currency appreciation is the most obvious side-effect of resource related Dutch disease. But large diamond revenues have not caused Botswanas currency, the Pula, to be consistently overvalued. (Pegg 2009:p4) Although Botswana faces a difficult situation with regards to exchange rates. Botswana must managed the exchange rates carefully as it imports 75% of its goods from South Africa (REF) but Botswanas exports are valued in US dollars. Therefore Botswana must try to keep the Pula stable against both the South African rand and US dollar at the same time to avoid increased prices of food or decreased earnings due to falling dollar prices. So far Botswana has managed this well. Botswana has also been forward thinking by accumulating large foreign exchange reserves (Jefferis 1998) which are important and useful to have because it gives them the ability to manipulate exchange rates to aid the domestic currency should it need it. The government also created the Public Debt Service Fund (PDSF) in 1972. It recognises that the diamond revenues may be beyond the governments absorptive capacity and so the PDSF allows the government to save money rather than overheat the economy by spending it. (Pegg 2009:p3).The Revenue Stabilization Fund (RSF) is especially useful in times of economic downturn like the current financial crisis, as they government are able to finance normal spending by using the savings rather than borrowing. Of course, although good governance has caused what is seen to be a success with regards to revenue management (Samatar 1999; Leith 2005), it has also been said (Pegg 2009:p2) that stability of rent streams also helped Botswana control the massive flows and not fall into resource related Dutch disease. This has also led Botswana to move upper middle income status in the World Bank classification. This is impressive as before independence Botswana was classified as a low income country. (World Bank Income Classification). Institutions Several authors have put forward the argument that inclusive pre-colonial institutions are responsible for Botswanas economic development as institutions are a reason why food policies are chosen and also enable good policy choices to stick. Beaulier 2003) Before colonisation it seems that Botswana society was generally inclusive. An important institution of traditional Botswana society is the role of kgotlas which are an assembly of adult males in which issues of public interest were discussed (Acemoglu et al 2001) Botswana society allowed open dissent of the King and chiefs in kgotlas which provided a fair and accountable society. A further point argued by Acemoglu et al (2001) and also by Englebert (2000) and Iimi (2006a) is that the relatively unintrusive nature of British colonialism left a lot of traditional and functional institutions intact. During the scramble for Africa in the 1800s Britain agreed to granted Botswana protectorate status requested by Batswana chiefs in 1885 (Beaulier 2003). The chiefs wanted protection from the South African Boers who were moving towards Botswana. However, Britain apart from protecting fr